Introduction Disinfectants are chemical substances used to kill or inhibit harmful microorganisms present on non-living surfaces. They are essential in hospitals, laboratories, pharmaceutical industries and households to control infections. Disinfection…
Introduction Pharmaceutical preparations, especially multi-dose products, are exposed to contamination during manufacturing, storage and repeated use. To protect these products from microbial growth, preservatives are added. These agents prevent spoilage,…
Introduction Immunology is the study of the body’s defence system. It explains how our body identifies foreign substances, produces antibodies and protects itself from infections. Anything that is foreign to…
Introduction Diagnostic tests help in identifying the presence of disease in a suspected patient. Some microorganisms take time to grow in culture, so faster methods like antigen–antibody reactions and molecular…
Introduction Microbial culture sensitivity testing is a laboratory method used to identify microorganisms in a sample and determine which antimicrobial drug is most effective against them. It helps clinicians select…
Introduction Penicillin and streptomycin are important antibiotics used to treat bacterial infections. To ensure their potency and quality, microbiological assays are performed. These assays compare the inhibitory effect of the…
Introduction Vitamins B2 (riboflavin) and B12 (cyanocobalamin) are essential nutrients required for normal metabolic functions. Microbiological assays are widely used to determine their potency because certain microorganisms depend on these…