Introduction Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms. Plant cells contain various constituents that perform important physiological and biochemical functions. Understanding these structures helps in…
Introduction Carbohydrates are major organic compounds found in fruits, vegetables, grains and legumes. They are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, usually in a ratio of 2:1 (H:O), and are…
Introduction Many crude drugs contain carbohydrates such as sugars, gums, mucilages and polysaccharides. These compounds help plants store food and retain water, and they also have important pharmaceutical uses. Carbohydrate-containing…
Introduction Lipids are an important group of naturally occurring compounds that include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids and steroids. They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as…
Introduction Oils are important natural products found in many plants and animals. In pharmacognosy, oils mainly fall into two groups: fixed oils and volatile (essential) oils. Fixed oils are non-volatile,…
Introduction Proteins are complex nitrogen-containing organic compounds found in all living cells. The word protein comes from the Greek word proteios meaning “first”, reflecting their importance in life processes. Proteins…
Introduction Plant fibers are widely used in pharmaceutical and medical fields for preparing surgical dressings, bandages, absorbent pads and related products. These fibers must be clean, safe, non-irritant and highly…