12. MYDRIATICS AND MIOTICS
Introduction Mydriatics and miotics are important ophthalmic drugs used during eye examination and in treating eye diseases. Mydriatics dilate the pupil, while miotics constrict the pupil. These drugs act on…
11. CHOLINERGIC AND ANTICHOLINERGIC DRUGS AND NEUROMUSCULAR BOCKERS
Introduction The cholinergic system controls many involuntary body functions through the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). Drugs that increase ACh actions are called cholinergic drugs. Drugs that block its actions are called…
10. ADRENERGIC AND ANTI-ADRENERGIC DRUGS
Introduction The sympathetic nervous system controls the body’s “fight or flight” responses. It uses adrenaline and noradrenaline (catecholamines) to activate different organs. Drugs that act on this system are called…
9. PHARMACOLOGY OF DRUGS ACTING ON ANS
Introduction The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls involuntary functions of the body such as heart rate, digestion, breathing, glandular secretion and smooth muscle activity. Drugs acting on the ANS are…
8. DRUG INTERACTIONS
Introduction Drug interactions occur when the effect of one drug is changed by the presence of another drug, food or chemical. This interaction may increase or decrease the action of…
7. PRE-CLINICAL EVALUATIONS
Introduction Pre-clinical evaluations are the studies carried out on a new drug before it is tested on humans. These studies help determine whether the drug is safe, effective and suitable…
6. DRUG TOXICITY: ACUTE, SUB- ACUTE AND CHRONIC TOXICITY
Introduction Before a new drug is approved for use in humans, it must be thoroughly tested for safety. This includes both preclinical studies in animals and clinical trials in humans.…